Depression: Neurobiological and Neuropsychological Models

Depression: Neurobiological and Neuropsychological Models A correlation of Neurobiological and Neuropsychological cognitive model toward Depression Abstract Depression is a chronic illness that has stirred centuries of debate regarding its mechanism. Notwithstanding the sharp contrast among theories that have been proposed to explain the underlying source of depression from different perspectives, all of them accept the fact that it affects body, mood and even thoughts of individuals and as World Health organization predicted, it is expected to be the second mental disorder by 2020. The most compelling models regarding the source of depression and its treatment in this realm are Monoamine model and cognitive model. Monoamine model claims that depression has a biological source and it is caused by neurochemical imbalance in individuals, whereas base on cognitive model impaired information processing and negative biases are the key factors in the development of depression. The present paper attempts to assert the missing point in each of these theories and propose an explanation about the mechanism and treatment from two similar perspectiv es: Cognitive Neurobiological and Cognitive Neuropsychological, which work as a combination of Monoamine and Cognitive model. Both of these models categorize biases based on two pathways: Bottom- Up and Top- Down processing. With the help of cognitive Neuropsychological model, it is shown how negative affective processing can be the main core of depression, while Neurobiological model will show how hyper activation and hypo activation in different brain regions can develop depression. Therefore, a correlation of both models can explain underlying source of depression and thus can be used for modifying depression symptoms. Definition: Depression is a universal mental disorder that has been growing at an alarming rate. It will be the second mental disorder by 2020; most people will be affected by depression in their lives either directly or indirectly, through a friend or family member. It is a severe and even painful disorder that will influence almost all aspects of sufferer’s life. Most people misdiagnose depression as feeling down, but depression is not a sign of weakness and is not the same as passing blue mood. According to UK medical reference, depression will be identified and categorized base on its symptoms, which is called ICD10 clinical criteria of depression and depends on the number of symptoms, types of depression, can be diagnosed. Symptoms are: Persistent sadness or low mood Loss of interests or pleasure Fatigue or low energy Disturbed sleep Poor concentration or indecisiveness Low self-confidence Poor or increased appetite Suicidal thoughts or acts Agitation or slowing of movements Guilt or self-blame If an individual suffer from 4 of these symptoms most of the time for at least 2 weeks, he/she will be diagnosed with mild depression, and with 5 to 6 of symptoms he/she suffer from moderate depression and in dangerous cases or severe depression, depressed person has more than 6 symptoms. Models of depression: A significant number of studies have been trying to reveal the mechanism of depression from different perspectives. Among the biologically based theories, the most reliable model that arguing reasonably about underlying source of depression and proposing acceptable treatment is Monoamine model. Monoamines are neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that include serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. The basic concept is that neurotransmitter imbalance within the brain is the main core of depression and neurotransmitters can be balanced again by using antidepressant medication. Type of antidepressant medication depends on severity of symptoms; for patients suffering from dysphoria (low mood) SSRIs or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors can be used, while anhedonia patients (ones with the loss of energy and enjoyment of life) should be treated with norepinephrine and dopamine enhancing drugs (SNRIs). Despite their immediate effects at the synaptic level, in approximately 40 % of the cases, they are ineffective in the short time and 30% of patients will suffer from depression within 12 months after recovery. This result suggests that depression is not only the cause of chemical imbalance and psychological factors play an important role in its development. On the other hand, the most prominent and empirically based model of psychological factors of depression is cognitive model proposed by Aaron Beck in 1976. This model claims that negative affective biases, which are negative biases in perception, attention, emotional processing, thoughts and rumination and even memory, will affect individual’s information processing and lack of cognitive control over these negative biases are the main cores of depression. According to this model, depressed people are likely to experience different phenomena such as: negative cognitive triad, think negatively about themselves, their future and even the world; positive blockade, blocking positive information, inhi bitory deficits, inability to disengage from negative stimuli. The model defined depression like an infinite loop, which receive feedback from its components: Figure 1: cognitive model of depression Beck claimed that by the help of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and behavioral activation therapy (BA) negative biases and negative schemata of depressed people can be modified, however the reality was far from his thought and CBT and BA failed to cure depression, therefore scientists try to find a better explanation and treatment. Based on Beck’s cognitive model, two models have been proposed by researchers: Cognitive Neurobiological and Cognitive Neuropsychological model, which are built on the assumption that negative bottom-up and top-down biases are vital in development of depression. Cognitive neuropsychological model: This model was proposed in 2011 and is a combination of Monoamine model and Cognitive model. From neuropsychological perspective environmental factors, genetic factors and personality can change the function of monoamine neurotransmitters; this neurotransmitter imbalance causes negative affective processing biases, which is the impairment of information processing especially in emotional and reward processing and play the main role in development and treatment of depression; and finally the negative affective processing will cause negative schemata in depressed people. In comparison to healthy individuals, who process information in positive way, in depressed people the negative affective processing will change this automatic process more negatively. The difference between Neuropsychological model and cognitive model is in the formation of negative schemata; based on cognitive model negative schemata are a result of early hostile life experience and they influencing the information processing, while cognitive psychological model claims that negative schemata are not the direct result of life experience, instead they are caused by negative information processing biases. Neuropsychological model categorized negative biases proposed by cognitive model into two groups: Bottom- up biases and Top-down biases. Bottom-up biases: Negative biases that give rise to formation of negative schemata are called bottom-up biases and consist of perceptual biases especially negative emotional perception, negative thoughts and rumination and reward- punishment processing biases. Generally, healthy individual perceive positive information or less negative information from environment, while depression makes sufferers to perceive more negative information from a stimulus faster and filter out the positive information. In a study done by Persad and Polivy in 1993, they observed individuals with depression have difficulty when they were shown facial emotion; paucity in identification, perception and even sensation of facial emotion was common in these patients. A series of experiments were conducted as a support for this finding and in nearly all of them biases toward negative part of stimuli is reported. For example in another study, researchers found a reduced sensitivity toward happy faces, but an extreme sensitivity to sad faces. There is also neuroimaging evidence that support their result. There is a known pathway in perceiving information, which consists of Thalamus (responsible for the distribution of afferent signals), the Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex (region that relays top-down cognitive control from the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex) and the Subgenual Cingulate Cortex (a region that integrates emotional feedback from the limbic system and projects to higher-order cognitive structures). Information from environment will pass through this pathway from Thalamus to Amygdala, which is responsible for detecting emotion and finally with the help of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Amygdala activity will be controlled in order to not to perceive only negative information. Depressed individuals seem to have a longer and more intense Thalamus and Amygdala activity as a response to negative stimuli. They also showed greater activity in Subgenual Cingulate Cortex, which is a region connecting limbi c activity to higher cortical level (Prefrontal Cortex), whereas regions that are responsible for cognitive control, Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex and Anterior Cingulate Cortex, showed a reduction in perceptional processing, which means less cognitive control over Amygdala and Thalamus, therefore more negative stimuli will be perceived. Figure 2: negative perceptional biases How we perceive emotion will determine how we think about our environmental events and ourselves. As currently said, depression will induce perception and as a result will alter individual’s thoughts in a negative way. Since Individuals are more likely to discern negative information, it is highly probable that their life events, especially ones that are related to their failure, determine their perspective toward themselves; they suffer from lack of self-steem, since they think they are useless, which gradually will cause more negative perception and more negative thoughts. This situation is like an infinite loop and is called rumination. Different brain regions involve in this process, which again prove lack of cognitive control in depression. As previously discussed, hyperactivity in the Amygdala and Hippocampus increase activity of Subgenual Cingulate Cortex (SCC), which is a connection between lower structural and cognitive part of brain and higher ones, therefore, Medial Prefrontal cortex (MPFC), a specific region that is in charge for internal representation of self, will be activated as a response negative information that is received from SCC. Beside the hyperactivation in these parts, there is hypoactivation in higher levels, especially in Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex and Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex, cognitive control regions; this reduction causes less control over Amygdala and Hippocampus and result in more negative perceptuational biases. Figure 3: negative thoughts and rumination After this finding researchers went further and tried to determine how depression affects the reward and punishment process. Interestingly they indicate an exaggeration in negative performance feedback, while a reduction in reward seeking behavior. Neuroimaging evidence revealed an increased activity in the Amygdala as a response to negative situation and decrease activation in the Amygdala, Striatal regions, prefrontal cortex, Nuscleus Accumbens and Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex as a response to reward. This evidence supports the claim that was made earlier with respect to impairment cognitive control in depressed individuals. Top-down biases: These types of biases are negative biases that bolster the existence of depressive state and are composed of emotional attention and emotional memory. Not all the information we perceive from environment will be processed; only those that are attended will be selected for further processing. This selecting process in healthy individual is more in favor of positive stimuli, which means greater Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) activity when they successfully inhibit attention to positive stimuli, while in depressed individual this area cannot be activated in response to positive stimuli and are unable them to disengage their attention from negative stimuli. Disengagement attention requires a top-down mediation from high-level cortical regions, which in depression these regions cannot work properly. Moreover, depressed individuals suffer from lack of selecting and guiding their attention toward positive information and as a result they attend to more negative stimuli. Neuroimagin g studies reveled 4 brain regions that are responsible for the whole process of attention: Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC; associated with control over stimulus selection), Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) and Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC; associated with disengagement functioning), Superior Parietal Cortex (SPC; associated with shifts in gaze). Depression will affect the activity in these regions: Prefrontal Cortex, especially Perigenual ACC, including Brodmann areas 24, 25, and 32, which will cause negative attentional biases; reduced activity in the right VLPFC, therefore they are less likely to guide their attention toward positive stimuli; decreased activity in right DLPFC and right SPC, which cause an impaired disengagement from negative stimuli; greater activation in ACC when successfully inhibiting attention to negative stimuli and less activity as a response to positive stimuli. Figure 4: negative attentional biases Various researchers claimed that depressed individuals prefer to remember their failure or negative events rather than their success. Their argument is base on the result of differnet tasks in which depressed individuals showed biases in remembering negative stimulus, not for positive materials. They suggest that since these patients are highly probable to perceive and attend negatively, they are more likely to encoding and recalling negative information. Thanks to neuroimaging studies, their claim was proved. As we might know hippocampus is an essential region for episodic memory and is connected to amygdala and as already discussed Amygdala’s activity is increased toward negative stimuli, which lead to increase activity in Hippocampus as well as Caudate and Putamen, regions for implicit memory and skill learning, in negative situation and as result will bolster the recall probability of negative information. Figure 5: negative memory biases According to cognitive model, negative schemata are the most responsible source for developing depression. Base on Neurobiological model, there is a circuit that involve in forming belief and representation of individual’s life, environment and even themselves. The elements of this circuit are: Medial Prefrontal Cortex that is a higher cortical level responsible for internal representation, Anterior Cingulate Cortex that is an intermediate level and a connector between limbic area and Prefrontal Cortex, and finally Amygdala, a lower structural level which detect and process emotion. The high activation in this circuit will cause the maintenance of depression state. Individuals at risk of depression According to cognitive neuropsychological model, we can predict the risk factors of depression and we might be able to prevent its development. The most important factors are: neuroticism, genetic factors and recovered depressed individuals. Neuroticism, which is a personality trait, characterized by anxiety, moodiness, worry, envy and jealousy, is most well-established risk factors for depression in non depressed people, however negative attentional biases are not found in them and it suggest that they only suffer form a bottom-up biases. Fortunately since they do not have the top down biases, their biases might be diminished by help of antidepressant drugs that influence bottom-up biases directly. As well as neurotic individuals, relative of depressed individual are in high risk of depression, since they tend to score higher on measures of neuroticism. Moreover, they show a greater activity in Amygdala as well as a reduced Ventral Striatal responsiveness to reward and less efficien t activation of Parietal and Temporal networks during working memory performance. All together prove the existence of risk of depression in these individuals. Last vulnerable individuals are those who recently recovered from depression. They have behavioral biases toward negative stimuli as well as abnormal activity in Amygdala. All of these vulnerable individuals exhibit bottom-up biases that are similar to depressed people. Conclusion Neuropsychological model and neurobiological model are proposed base on cognitive model and believe that different biases will cause and help the depression state in both depressed people and individuals at risk of depression. According to them, depression is a sequential process that is caused by two pathways: Bottom-up and Top-down biases. Bottom-up biases will influence the lower cognitive and structural level of brain and is the main cause of generating depression, while Top- down affect the higher level and is responsible for maintaining the depressed state. By help of antidepressed drugs, the bottom up biases (perceptional, toghts biases) of depression will be modified and by help of CBT and BT, the top down biases ( attentional and memory biases) will be remit gradually . Figures below are used to show development of depression base on two models. Figure 6: cognitive neurobiological model In this figure the whole process of depression is shown as a loop and as can be seen each step will get feedback to each other, even depressive symptoms will influence the Schema activation, which make the whole system stronger. The blue boxes are brain regions that are described as bottom-up biases, while gray boxes are more higher structural levels or top-down biases, which are responsible for cognitive control. Figure 7: cognitive neuropsychological model: As can be seen the environment event or genetic factors or personality will cause an imbalance in monoamine transmitters, this change cause negative affective biases (perceptual biases), bottom-up biases and lack of cognitive control over these biases, which is a result of environmental trigger as well as bottom-up biases will increase the chance of depression by generating dysfunctional negative schemata; dysfunctional negative schemata will causes more severe and higher level of biases (top-down biases). Green boxes are treatments that can be use for each step.

Study Guide Ap Bio Ch 16-18

Study guide for Ch 16-18 Chapter 16 †¢ Alfred Hershey and Martha chase answered the question whether protein or DNA was the genetic material by using Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). o Bacteriaphages were good for the experiment because they only contain 2 organic compounds, DNA and protein. †¢ James Watson and Francis Crick were the first to solve the structure (structure=function) of DNA. †¢ X-ray crystallography( process used to visualize molecules in 3-D. †¢ DNA is a double helix- structure †¢ The nitrogenous bases of DNA are( adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). The 2 strands (the leading and the lagging strand) are antiparallel. o The leading strand goes in direction 5’ to 3’. o Lagging strand goes 3’ to 5’. Takes longer to replicate cause it’s built in fragments. †¢ Tip from the book(know these enzymes for replication: DNA polymerase, ligase, helicase, and topoisomerase. Know thi s enzyme for transcription(the role of RNA polymerase. †¢ Replication(making DNA from already existing DNA strand. DNA replication is semiconservative (1/2 of original DNA and the other ? is from new DNA strand). This is used by humans! A group of enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyzes the elongation of new DNA at replication fork. The overall direction of DNA replication goes from the origin to the fork. o DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing chain one by one; working in a 5’ to 3’ (DNA build strand (â€Å"new†) or RNA polymerase go 5’(3’ in the build strand). Parent strand DNA and RNA polymerase is 3’ to 5’. o DNA polymerase matches adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine o The lagging strand is synthesized in separate pieces called Okazaki fragments (which segments in 3’(5’), which are then sealed together by DNA Ligase.Forming a continuous DNA strand. †¢ Many factors in replication: o Bas e pairing in DNA replication( A=T/ G=C. o Mismatch repair(special repair enzymes fix incorrectly paired nucleotides o Nucleotide excision repair. †¢ Tip****(know the difference between replication (DNA to DNA), transcription (DNA to RNA), and translation (RNA to protein). †¢ In Eukaryotic cells, DNA and protein are packed together as chromatin. o Heterochromatin(very condensed chromatin. o Euchromatin(loosely condensed chromatin. Telemer region(small fragment of DNA that is lost during replication due to enzyme’s inability to attach the fragment on to the end of the DNA helix. (This is our biological clock). Chapter 17 †¢ Gene expression(the process by which DNA directs the synthesis of proteins (or sometimes RNA). †¢ Transcription= DNA(RNA o Takes place in the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. †¢ Messenger RNA (mRNA) produced during transcription. It carries the genetic message of DNA to the protein making machinery of the cell in the cytoplasm, ie the ri bosome. The mRNA triplets are called codons (a codon is a mRNA triplet). o mRNA is read codon by codon. ? Start codons and stop codons are used in the build strand the protein coding segment is between the start codon and stop codon in the build strand. †¢ They are written in the 5’ to 3’ direction. †¢ More than one codon codes for each of the 20 amino acids. Genetic code includes 64 codons (4 x 4 x 4). o The group must be read in the correct groupings in order for translation to be successful o 3 codons act as signal terminators (UAA, UAG, UGA) o AUG always has to be start codon. RNA polymerase(enzyme that separates the 2 DNA strands and connects the RNA nucleotides as they base-pair along the DNA template strand. o RNA pol. Can add RNA nucleotides only to the 3’ end of the strand. REMEMBER†¦ uracil replaces thymine when base pairing to adenine. ==>difference betw DNA and RNA. o The DNA sequence at which RNA pol. Attaches is called the Promoter. o The DNA sequence that signals the end of transcription= Terminator. †¢ Transcription unit(the entire stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule. †¢ 3 main stages of transcription: from the book. Initiation (RNA polymerase that transcribes mRNA cannot bind to the promoter region without supporting help from proteins known as transcription factors. transcription factors assist the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter, thus the initiation of transcription) Notes: o Elongation (RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, continuing to untwist the double helix. RNA nucleotides are continually added to the 3’ end. As this happens, the double helix re-forms. Notes: †¢ Termination (RNA polymerase transcribes a terminator sequence in the DNA, the RNA transcript is released, and the polymerase detaches. There a couple of key post-transcriptional modifications to RNA( the addition of a 5’ cap and the addition of a poly A Tail (3’). †¢ RNA sp licing also takes place in eukaryotic cells. Large portions of the newly synthesized RNA strand are removed. This is the parent strand. o The sections of the mRNA that are spliced out are called introns. o Sections that are spliced together by a spliceosome(exons. ? The new strand containing the exons is called the build strand, which runs in a direction of 5’ to 3’.Remember parent strand runs in 3’ to 5’. †¢ Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)( plays a major role in catalyzing the excision of the introns and joining of exons. o Ribozyme is when RNA serves a catalytic role. †¢ Translation: o 2 additional types of RNA play important roles in translation besides mRNA: ? Transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). †¢ tRNA functions in transferring amino acids from a pool of amino acids located in cytoplasm to a ribosome. These amino acids are incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain. At one end of a tRNA it loosely binds the amino acid, and at th e other end it has a nucleotide triplet called an anticodon (allows it to pair specifically with a complementary codon on the mRNA). †¢ rRNA complexes with proteins to form the 2 sub units that form ribosomes. o Translation can be divided into 3 steps ? Initiation, Elongation, and Termination (descriptions of these steps can be found on pg 129-130 I got lazy so fuck off) †¢ The review guide goes into mutations on pg 130 but I think that you’re better off reading the guide than reading my description. Chapter 18 In bacteria, genes are often clustered into units called operons. †¢ Operon consists of 3 parts: o Operator: controls the access of RNA polymerase to the genes, it’s found within the promoter region. ? Normally in on position. In a repressible operon. o Promoter: where RNA polymerase attaches. o Genes of the operon: the entire stretch of DNA required for all the enzymes produced by the operon. †¢ Regulatory Genes(produce repressor proteins th at may bind to the operator site. When a regulatory protein occupies the operator site, RNA pol. Is blocked from the genes of the operon. Repressible operon( normally on. It can be inhibited. This type of operon is normally anabolic. o The repressor protein produced by the regulatory gene is inactive. o If the organic molecule being produced by the operon is provided to the cell, the molecule can act as a corepressor, and bind to the repressor protein(this activates it. ? The activated repressor protein binds to the operator site, shutting down the operon. †¢ The lac operon is inducible o Controls the production of B- galactosidase an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis (break down) of lactose into glucose and galactose ?Inducible operon(gene expression B-galactosidase is stimulated by the presence of a co inducer, lactose. †¢ Turns the repressor gene switch off. o This is notes on gene expression on tryptophan. Next stuff is from book. ? Inducible operon( normally off bu t can be activated. This type of operon is catabolic, breaking down food molecules for energy. The repressor protein produced by the regulatory gene is active. †¢ To turn the inducible operon on, a specific small molecule, called an inducer, binds to an inactivates the repressor protein.With the repressor out of the operator site, RNA polymerase can access the genes of the operon. o 2 regulatory mechanisms used to turn on lac operon ? Presence of lactose as co inducer ? Low amounts of glucose. †¢ These 2 are the only way for this shit to work yo! †¢ Differential gene expression in eukaryotic cell gene expression o The expression of different genes by cells with the same genome. †¢ Histone acetylation( acetyl groups are added to amino acids of histone proteins, thus making the chromatin less tightly packed and encouraging transcription. DNA methylation( the addition of methyl groups to DNA it causes chromatin to condense, thus reducing gene expression. o With the help of phosphorylation next to a methylated amino acid, chromatin becomes loosened and thus encouraging transcription. †¢ Epigenic inheritance( the inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence. †¢ Transcription initiation is where DNA control elements that bind transcription factors are involved in regulation. Control elements( multiple control elements(segments of non coding DNA that serve as binding sites for transcription factors that help regulate transcription. o This is necessary for the precise regulation of gene expression in diff cell types. o Proximal and Distal control elements. ? Proximal control element has to be right next to promoter anything else is distal. †¢ Transcription factors( o Enhancer regions are bound to the promoter region by proteins called activators. o Some transcription factors function as repressors, others function as activators. Extra stuff †¢ TATA box is at the beginning of prom oter region.

Development, an Impetus to Urbanization Essay

New ways of thinking about government, science, economics, and religion had brought many changes to America by the eighteenth century. Concern for individual freedoms became so strong that it led to revolution in many lands. In Britain’s American colonies, revolution brought the establishment of a new nation, the United States. In the spring of 1775 few Americans, angry as they were, favored separation from Britain. Support for independence grew over the next six months as fighting continued and the colonists debated the issue. The Americans had declared their independence but still had to win it. They had capable leaders and were strengthened by their dedication to the cause of liberty. The Americans emerged victorious from the Revolutionary War and adopted a plan of government that became a model for other nations (Hinkle, 1994). Since then, modernization and urbanization became the twin paradigms of â€Å"pop culture† from that point on in America. For approximately two hundred years, people in the United States have been wandering towards the fringes in the hunt for reasonably priced domestic shelter, rural community conviviality, and well-preserved and intact nature only to learn that their verdant new neighborhoods are a component of the emergent metropolitan stretch. Modernization describes the process by which a society moves from traditional or pre-industrial social and economic arrangements to those characteristics of industrial societies. Implicit in the notion of modernization is the assumption that there is basically one predominant course of development, namely industrialization and urbanization which were followed by America (Todaro, 1981). This capitalistic and industrially advanced commerce became the impetus of urbanization in America. The relocation of the new technologies furnished the United States its first manufacturing plants, large-scale mills that incorporated spinning and knitting technology in a single factory. As workers drifted into the metropolis in the hunt for employment in the factories, the factory scheme was mainly accountable for the materialization of the urbanized city (Harris and Todaro, 1970). The development of dramatic socioeconomic modifications brought about when wide-ranging automation of assembly systems led to a swing from domestic hand manufacturing to across-the-board factory manufacture. The Industrial Revolution has transformed the visage of nations, creating metropolitan centers involving substantial urban services (Brody, 1989). Viewed in this manner, modernization entails a pattern of convergence as societies become increasingly and inevitably urban, industry comes to overshadow agriculture, the division of capitalistic labor becomes more specialized, colonialism gained a new meaning, and the size and density of the population increase with immigrants coming in from every point in the world (Cohen, 2004). Initially, inhabitants have sought commune, dwelling, and conserved environment in suburbia. People have continuously hankered after sighting their conurbations as human constructions built as one piece. Developers have taken pleasure in a range of imaginings, aiming for revenues from economies of scale and enlarged suburban crowdedness, while swaying opinion on municipal and federal administration to diminish the peril of real estate conjecture (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). Enclosing all environmental hullabaloos in addition to the intricacies of social stratum, ethnicity, and sexual category, several speculate how we mull over the communes Americans construct and make their homes in (Newman, 2006). It is apparent that population size and composition have a great composition have a great many ramifications for all phases of social life. The distribution of a population in space also assumes critical significance. The â€Å"where† may be an area as large as a continent or as small as a city block. Between these extremes are world regions, nations, national regions, states, cities and rural areas. Changes in the number and proportion of people living in various areas are the cumulative effect of differences in fertility, mortality, and net migration (Walls, 2004). One of the most significant developments in human history has been the development of cities. Although many of us take cities for granted, they are one of the most striking features of our modern era. A city is a relatively dense and permanent concentration of people who secure their livelihood chiefly through non-agricultural activities. The influence of the urban mode of life extends far beyond the immediate confines of a city’s boundaries. Many of the characteristics of modern societies, including problems, derive from an urban existence (Cohen, 2004). Urbanization has proceeded quite rapidly during the past two centuries. In 1800 there were fewer than fifty cities in the world with 100,000 or more population. And by 1900, only one in twenty earthlings lived in a city with a population of at least 100,000. Today. One in five people lives in a center with at least 100,000 people (Montgomery, et al. , 2004). Several of the spatial standards and social prospects of the 1800s and early 1900s hang about up till now, layers entwined in protocols, recollection, and experience, in addition to the metaphors of popular culture and the proclamations of draftsmen and urban developers. In the first part of the 1800s, inhabitants, pattern book authors, and engineers created long-term principles of quixotic houses established in picturesque landscape peopled by elite, private neighborhoods (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). Prevalent since the 1840s, the philosophy of female domesticity was married to a trend of mannish home occupancy, stretched out to subsume plebeian males three decades later. Communitarian activities started to have some bearing on draftsmen, landscapers, and engineers, a class of reformers on the up understood they may possibly fashion a transformative societal construction at the outer reaches of the metropolis (Kivisto, 2001). Picturesque enclaves began round about 1850. All over this time, the American suburban abode had turned out to be a private utopia, taking the place of the archetypal town which had taken on a range of Americans’ hopes a thousand years earlier (Satterthwaite, 2005). Nevertheless, it is time to revamp every layer in the discrete metropolitan terrain, and contemplate how to take in hand each variety, keeping in mind that property holder subsidies, developer subventions, and metropolitan services have been dispersed disproportionately over the decades and certain greater impartiality is looked-for. The long-standing enclaves may necessitate conservation, but aid should be rendered in exchange for communal access and construal of their privileged parks and natural terrains (Harris and Fabricius, 1996). New-fangled proposals for picturesque enclaves, such as Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, laid emphasis to communal open area and advanced joint public life (Satterthwaite, 2005). One communitarian community in Mount Vernon, New York, exerted a pull on roughly three-hundred families by putting forward fortification against the biased power and weight of capital; others urbanized model settlements to advance women’s repute through collective services and industrial sustenance (Alexander, et al. , 2004). Most early urban communities were city-states, and many modern nations have evolved from them. Even where the nation became large in both size and land area, the city has remained the focus for political and economic activities, and the core and magnet of much social life. To people of other nations, the city often represents the nation, and this tradition survives in the modern use of a city, such as Washington, London, and Moscow, as a synonym for a nation (Beauchemin and Bocquier, 2004). Industrial-urban centers typically been geographically scattered, and although dominating their hinterlands, have had only tenuous economic and social relations with them. More recently, metropolitan cities have emerged. This phase in urban development does not represent a sharp break with the industrial-urban tradition, but rather a widening and deepening of urban influences in every area of social life. Increasingly cities have become woven into an integrated network (Cohen, 2004). The technological base for the metropolitan phase of urbanism is found in the tremendous increase in the application of science to industry, the widespread use of electric power (freeing industry from the limitations associated with steam and belt-and-pulley modes of power), and the advent of modern forms of transportation (the automobile and rapid transit systems have released cities from the limitations associated with foot and hoof travel, which had more or less restricted growth to a radius of 3 miles from the center) (Todaro, 1981). Steam and belt-and-pulley power techniques had produced great congestion in urban areas by the beginning of the twentieth century. But a number of factors have increasingly come to the foreground and bucked earlier centripetal pressures, including rising city taxes, increased land values, traffic and transportation problems, and decaying and obsolescent inner zones. These and other forces have accelerated the centrifugal movement made technologically possible by electric power, rapid transit, the automobile, and the telephone (Harris, 1988). The result has been the development of satellite and suburban areas, broad, ballooning urban lands linked by beltways that constitute cities in their own right. In population, jobs, investment, construction, and chopping facilities, they rival the old inner cities. They are the sites of industrial plants, corporate offices and office towers, fine stores, independent newspapers, theaters, restaurants, superhotels, and big-league stadiums (Montgomery, et al. , 2004). A good deal of the sociological enterprise is directed toward identifying recurrent and stable patterns in people’s social interactions and relationships. In like fashion, sociologists are interested in understanding how people order their relationship and conduct their activities in space. They provide a number of models that attempt to capture the ecological patterns and structures of city growth (Newman, 2006). In the period between World Wars I and II, sociologists at the University of Chicago viewed Chicago as a social laboratory and subjected it to intensive study. The concentric circle model enjoyed a prominent place in much of this work. The Chicago group held that the modern city assumes a pattern of concentric circles, each with distinctive characteristics. At the center of the city, the central business district, are retail stores, financial institutions, hotels, theaters, and businesses that cater to the needs of downtown shoppers. Surrounding the central business district is an area of residential deterioration caused by the encroachment of business and industry, the zone in transition (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). In earlier days, thee neighborhoods had contained the pretentious homes of wealthy and prominent citizens. In later years they became slum areas and havens for marginal business establishments (pawnshops, secondhand stores, and modest taverns and restaurants). The zone in transition shades into the zone of workingmen’s homes that contain two-flats, old single dwellings, and inexpensive apartments inhabited largely by blue-collar workers. Beyond the zone occupied by the working class are residential zones composed primarily of small business proprietors, professional people, and managerial personnel. Finally, out beyond the area containing the more affluent neighborhoods is a ring of encircling small cities, towns, and hamlets, the commuters’ zone (Harris and Fabricius, 1996). The Chicago group viewed these zones as ideal types, since in practice no city conforms entirely to the scheme. For instance, Chicago borders on Lake Michigan, so that a concentric semicircular rather than a circular arrangement holds. Moreover, critics point out that the approach is less descriptive of today’s cities than cities at the turn of the twentieth century. And apparently some cities such as New Haven have never approximated the concentric circle patterns. Likewise, cities in Latin America, Asia, and Africa exhibit less specialization in land use than do those in the United States (Montgomery, et al. , 2004). Homer Hoyt has portrayed large cities as made up of a number of sectors rather than concentric circles, the sector model. Low-rent districts often assume a wedge shape and extend from the center of the city to its periphery. In contrast, as a city grows, high-rent areas move outward, although remaining in the same sector. Districts within a sector that are abandoned by upper-income groups become obsolete and deteriorate (Satterthwaite, 2005). Thus, rather than forming a concentric zone around the periphery of the city, Hoyt contends that the high-rent areas typically locate on the outer edge of a few sectors. Furthermore, industrial areas evolve along river valleys, watercourses, and railroad lines, rather than forming a concentric circle around the central business district. But like the concentric circle model, the sector model does not fit a good many urban communities, including Boston (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). Another model, the multiple nuclei model, depicts the city as having not one center, but several. Each center specializes in some activity and gives its distinctive cast to the surrounding area. For example, the downtown business district has as its focus commercial and financial activities. Other centers include the bright lights (theater and recreation) area, automobile row, a government center, a whole-sailing center, a heavy manufacturing district, and a medical complex. Multiple centers evolve for a number of reasons (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). First, certain activities require specialized facilities, for instance, the retail district needs to be accessible to all parts of the city; the port district requires suitable waterfront; and a manufacturing district dictates that a large block of land be available near water or rail connections. Second, similar activities often benefit from being clustered together. For instance, a retail district profits by drawing customers for a variety of shops. Third, dissimilar activities are often antagonistic to one another. For example, affluent residential development tends to be incompatible with industrial development (Dentler, 2002). And finally, some activities cannot afford high-rent areas and hence locate in low-rent districts; for instance, bulk wholesaling and storage. The multiple nuclei model is less helpful in discovering universal spatial patterns in all cities than in describing the unique patterns peculiar to particular communities (Todaro, 1981). Structure-function approaches help us to partition social life into discrete structures, including statuses and neighborhoods. They allow us to place a handle on the fluid quality of life so that we may grasp, describe, and analyze it, making it understandable and intelligible. But as many conflict and symbolic interactionist theorists emphasize, the dichotomy between structure and process gives birth to problems that are frequently unnecessary. For one thing, the dichotomy produces difficulty in handling change. Indeed, the word change itself is saturated with certain non-process connotations, implying a shift from one static and relatively stable to another (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). Most of the some of the United States are not necessarily one hundred per cent Americans. This is the result of the continuous social change that has taken place in the metropolitan cities over the past decades. Some cities have especially undergone a vivid transition from rural community to a modern suburb. Language, culture, religion, and ethnic heritage reinforce people’s sense of belonging. These are the bonds out of which will be created new communities. Some people insist that the forces that are making the world into a single economy have separated people from longstanding identities and have, at the same time, weakened nation-state (Davies, 2005). The everyday life of the rural people is uncomplicated and less complex than that of the urban inhabitants, and the rural resident are inclined to keep more of the speech patterns and traditions of their characteristic racial backgrounds (Cohen, 2004). A foremost setback in living in a highly developed city is the high cost of living, owing largely to the continent’s empowered economy (Dentler, 2002). Once, most part of the continent had heavily relied on imports. Transportation expenses were incorporated in the prices of the majority of consumer merchandise. As the residents number rise, housing grows more and more hard to obtain, and it is excessively high-priced when proportionate to housing costs in several of the mainland states. Building materials, nearly all of which are brought in from outside the country, are costly. Residential settlement is limited and expensive, given that much of the land is in possession of corporations and trusts (Harris and Todaro, 1970). Pains have been taken through legislation to correct this state of affairs. Thoroughly-designed housing situated in communities, in which the single-family home yield to high-rise, high-density houses and townhouses and apartment complexes, has become one solution to the lack and cost related to urban housing (Hayden, 2004). Urban settlement some time ago comprised more or less completely of single-family quarters, individual business buildings and stores, small bazaars, and three- or four-story inns. With the upsurge of inhabitants and vacationers since the early part of the 20th century, on the other hand, American states have built increasingly high-rise apartment building houses, hotels, and commercial establishments, with the conventional individual shopkeepers becoming wrapped up into the sets of buildings of shopping centers and supermarkets (Loomis and Beegle, 1950). Urban cities are where the majority of Americans reside at the present. It is the governing American edifying landscape, amalgamating esteemed natural and manufactured ecosystems, lots and single domestic houses. Urban cities are where a massive space of profit-making and residential landed property are bankrolled and erected. It is the locality of most of the charitable toil of fostering and parenting, mirroring both societal and ecological customs. Lastly, urbanized cities are where the large American body of voters live today (Alexander, et al. , 2004). References Alexander, Jeffrey C. , Gary T. Marx, and Christine L. Williams. (2004). Self, Social Structure, and Beliefs: Explorations in Sociology. University of California Press. Beauchemin, Cris and Philippe Bocquier, 2004, â€Å"Migration and Urbanization in Francophone West. Brody, David, 1989, â€Å"Labor History, Industrial Relations, and the Crisis of American Labor. † Industrial & Labor Relations Review. Cohen, Barney, 2004, â€Å"Urban Growth In Developing Countries: A Review Of Current Trends And A Caution Regarding Existing Forecasts†, World Development, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 23-51. Davies, Adam, 2005, â€Å"Migration, Development And Poverty. Towards And New Framework Of Impact Assessment†, Unpublished Dissertation, MSc Development Administration and Planning, Development Planning Unit, UCL, London. Dentler, Robert A. , 2002, Practicing Sociology: Selected Fields. Praeger. Harris, John R. and Michael P. Todaro, 1970, â€Å"Migration, Unemployment And Development: A Two-Sector Analysis†, The American Economic Review, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 126-142. Harris, Nigel, 1988, â€Å"Economic Development and Urbanization †, Habitat International, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 5-15. Harris, Nigel and Ida Fabricius (eds. ), 1996, Cities and Structural Adjustment, UCL Press, London. Hayden, Dolores, 2004, Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth, 1820-2000. Vintage Books. Hinkle, Gisela J. , 1994, The Development of Modern Sociology: Its Nature and Growth in the United States. Random House. Kivisto, Peter, 2001, Illuminating Social Life. California: Pine Forge Press. Loomis, Charles P. , and J. Allan Beegle, 1950, Urban Social Systems: A Textbook in Urban Sociology and Anthropology. Prentice Hall. Montgomery, Mark R. et al. , 2004, Cities Transformed. Demographic Change and its Implications in the Developing World, Earthscan, London. Newman, Peter, 2006, â€Å"The Environmental Impact Of Cities†, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 275-295. Satterthwaite, David, 2005, â€Å"The Scale Of Urban Change Worldwide 1950-2000 And Its Underpinnings†, Human Settlements Discussion Paper Series Urban Change No. 1, IIED, London. Todaro, M. , 1981, â€Å"Rural To Urban Migration: Theory And Policy†, in Todaro, M. , Economics for a Developing World, Macmillan, London. Walls, Michael, 2004, â€Å"Facts And Figures On Rural And Urban Change†, Report to DFID, Development Planning Unit, UCL.

The Effects Of Relaxation On A Healthy Diet - 9106 Words

Anxiety can be very difficult to relieve but there are a few natural ways which can help you. Relaxation plays a very important role when you try to cure anxiety. 1. Healthy diet When you are stressed the organism consumes quicker the nutrients and if they are not replaced the anxiety gets installed. There for it is important to have a healthy diet. The black bread and rise are very good and can have a relaxing effect. 2. Vitamins are essential! Eat a lot of fruits and vegetables for vitamins. The B vitamins are the most important for curing anxiety. 3. Maintain the sugar in your blood! Eat little and often during the day in order to maintain the sugar in your blood. Malnutrition can lead to anxiety also. 4. Have an equilibrate life You must maintain equilibrium between resting, exercising and recreation. This will help you feel better and have a positive attitude. Anxiety is not going to disappear if you have a hectic life. 5. Go to gymnastic classes Gymnastic will help yo u relief all the tension from your body and mind. The more physic effort you make the more relaxed you will feel afterwords. 6. Positive thinking By using affirmations you will be able to put the accent on the good things in your life and personality. Create short sentences and repeat them with loud voice a few times. For example say to yourself that you are good at your job. 7. Appetite Anxiety can kill or grow your appetite. Eat less sugar and more aliments made of white bloom. 8.Show MoreRelatedHealthy Vs Non Healthy Lifestyle1531 Words   |  7 PagesA healthy versus a non-healthy lifestyle, many have questioned which is the greater of the two. You have many strong arguments on both sides, but to date they have been inconclusive. The simplicity of the everyday events have caused many to question the argument. We have seen several model athletes who have lived a strict healthy lifestyle simply fall to their death at no avail. 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